WebThe primacy effect causes better memory of the first items in a list due to increased rehearsal and commitment to long-term memory. The reaction to his work in his day was mostly positive. The primacy effect is used regularly throughout daily life and can be related to many common tasks. The primacy effect involves rehearsing items until they enter long-term memory. For this activity, create a list of 12 words and try to make a word in the middle distinctive. His results went on to support the Primacy Effect. This refers to the amount of information retained in the subconscious even after this information cannot be consciously accessed. What is the Difference between Bipolar 1 & 2? In its simplest terms, the primacy effect refers to our tendency to remember the first things we hear in a series. For example, if they heard the argument against the plaintiff, then immediately heard the argument for the plaintiff, and then made their decision a day or two later, they were more likely to vote against the plaintiff. A nonsense syllable is a consonant-vowel-consonant combination, where the consonant does not repeat and the syllable does not have prior meaning. PracticalPsychology. In addition, items at the beginning are more like to be repeated. The Primacy Effect is characterized by a tendency on the part of an observer to be more influenced by items and facts that are presented earlier than others. De Vega, M. (1990). So, why are items at the beginning of a list easier to remember than items in the middle? The recency effect is the tendency to remember the items that appeared at the end of a list better than those that appeared in the beginning. What are the precise causes of the primacy effect? Hermann Ebbinghaus. The serial position effect is a psychological phenomenon associated with memory that says that items at the beginning (primacy) and items at the end (recency) of a list or string of information are more easily recalled than items in the middle. This illusion is now used extensively in cognitive psychology research, to help map perception pathways in the human brain. Another important discovery is that of savings. BMC Med Inform Decis Mak. This is because concrete words are easier to encode into memory. He arranged his paper on memory into four sections: the introduction, the methods, the results, and the discussion. Choose an answer and hit 'next'. The primacy effect can have significant consequences in a variety of settings. For example, if you are trying to remember a list of groceries, group the items together by category (e.g., dairy, produce, meat). For example, commercials that start just when a high-profile show is ends are better served than those placed in the middle or later. During the next three years, he spent time at Halle and Berlin.[1]. These cookies will be stored in your browser only with your consent. All rights reserved, Serial Position Effect (Example + Definition), The Mandela Effect (Definition + Examples), The Framing Effect (Definition + Examples). WebPrimacy Effect in Attribution Background and History Since the early 20th century, psychologists have been concerned with how the impressions we make of others are formed. The primacy effect causes better memory of the first items in a list due to increased rehearsal and commitment to long-term memory. A few examples of the primacy effect in common and everyday tasks include: The primacy effect is explained by the ways a human encodes and processes information. Step away for a moment and try to list the main points you remember. For example, Immanuel Kant used pure description to discuss recognition and its components and Sir Francis Bacon claimed that the simple observation of the rote recollection of a previously learned list was "no use to the art" of memory. One half of the participants saw this list of traits: intelligent, industrious, impulsive, critical, stubborn, envious There's also a second reason related to attention span. Miller and Campbell presented participants with two arguments: one for a plaintiff accused of a crime, and one against. In it, two circles of identical size are placed near to each other. The primacy effect also has an important influence on a type of cognitive bias known as the anchoring Making a Lasting Impression. The researchers found that participants were more likely to remember the words that appeared at the beginning and end of the list than those that appeared in the middle. You can use the primacy effect whether or not you work in sales. Recall can be associated with both the quality and quantity of information that is remembered. 7 and 8. Information that ends up in long-term memory has a significantly higher chance of being recalled when it is needed. In other words, the first results you obtain in certain tasks, or when carrying out certain actions, determine, to a certain extent, your future behavior when it comes to performing the same acts again in the future. Quiz, The Covariation Model of Attribution: Definition & Steps All other trademarks and copyrights are the property of their respective owners. WebPrimacy Effect: definition and practical examples. The primacy effect of psychology suggests that individuals are more likely to remember the first item in a list. The curve levels off after about one day. If there is something that you want to stand out: say it first, say it last, or both! WebAccording to the primacy effect, given a list of 20 items, which items have the greatest odds of being remembered later? The primacy effect is often confused with the, In the study, participants were shown a list of, Acting Out Definition According to Psychologists, Consumer Behavior How Your Brain Makes You Buy Things, The True Story of Who Discovered That Earth Revolves Around the Sun, Best 10 Tips on How To Boost Your Confidence as a Man, Nurturing Inner Growth: Understanding the Power of Internalizing Behavior, Brains Marvels: The Intriguing World of Brain Stem Reflexes, Reactive Aggression: Understanding its Signs And How to Manage It, Understanding The Benefits of Externalizing Behavior in Psychology, 10+ Toxic Behavior Traits: Recognizing the Warning Signs, Petty Behavior Types and Consequences of Petty Behavior, Beyond the Norm: Unraveling the 4 Signs of Deviant Behavior. The phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and central executive are three components of long-term memory. Ebbinghaus drafted the first standard research report. The second date is intelligent, industrious, impulsive, critical, stubborn, and envious. Well, youve seen, through Aschs experiment, that this phenomenon can have an effect on your judgment of others. For example, please read the following list: banana, orange, blueberry, rhinoceros, blackberry, peach, apple. The one influence that has always been cited as having inspired Ebbinghaus was Gustav Fechner's two-volume Elemente der Psychophysik. This is due to something researchers refer to as the "primacy effect.". Best-selling author Malcolm Gladwell let his close-cropped hair grow. Arias, M.F. A person might be able to store those first few items to long-term memory, and those last few items might reside in short-term memory, but the ones in the middle never get stored. But opting out of some of these cookies may have an effect on your browsing experience. For example, a subject who reads a sufficiently long list of words is more likely to remember words toward the beginning than words in the middle. Early on, psychologists tried to see if there were any stable patterns regarding how people formed these impressions. In some of his studies, he forced himself to learn lists of nonsense syllables, and then measured how long it took to relearn the same material after various delays. Try focusing on particularly difficult concepts at the beginning of your study sessions and conclude each session with another quick review of that information. Shortly after Ebbinghaus left Berlin in 1893, Dilthey published a paper extolling the virtues of descriptive psychology, and condemning experimental psychology as boring, claiming that the mind was too complex, and that introspection was the desired method of studying the mind. Quiz, Selective Attention: Definition & Examples, Selective Attention: Definition & Examples Finally, we talk about what impact it can have on you, as well as its influence in the field of advertising and marketing. Its a simple idea, but there are a lot of factors that play into the primacy effect: The first date is envious, stubborn, critical, impulsive, industrious and intelligent. Similarly, a student tasked with giving a speech may choose to present more in order to create a lasting impression and potentially receive a higher grade. Introduccin a la Psicologa Cognitiva. They want your first impression and the last impression of a product to be positive. Alfred Binet borrowed and incorporated them into the Binet-Simon intelligence scale. Two storage mechanisms in free recall. Therefore, the first thing you learned (and the first rewards you received), condition your future decisions to a greater extent than subsequent learning. Quiz, Self-Fulfilling Prophecies in Psychology: Definition & Examples [3], There are several limitations to his work on memory. 144 quizzes. This is because participants will have a harder time encoding the information into memory if it is presented in random order. For example, eyewitnesses to a crime are more likely to remember the perpetrator if they see him at the beginning of a lineup (i.e., the primacy effect). The primacy effect also has an important influence on a type of cognitive bias known as the anchoring Making a Lasting Impression. This highlights that people are drawing on two different types of memory when they demonstrate the primacy and recency effect. No matter whether this was a reasonable price or not, its the first one you remember. 2023 Dotdash Media, Inc. All rights reserved, Arlin Cuncic, MA, is the author of "Therapy in Focus: What to Expect from CBT for Social Anxiety Disorder" and "7 Weeks to Reduce Anxiety.". Prior to Ebbinghaus, most contributions to the study of memory were undertaken by philosophers and centered on observational description and speculation. This provides evidence In one study, participants were asked to listen to a debate between two people and then indicate which side they agreed with. Attention allows you to attend to these stimuli and you store them in your memory. Murdock suggested that words early in the list were put into long term memory (primacy effect) because the person has time to rehearse each word acoustically. Both the Primacy and Recency Effect make up a theory on the Serial Position Effect, which shows through many studies that people are more likely to remember the first and last parts of a list than the middle. In general, the explanation for how the primacy effect works has to do with two highly related aspects of memory encoding that allow items at the beginning of the list to be recalled with greater ease than items in the middle. This is a way to overcome this bias, however, using distinctiveness. This is because there is more information to process and encode into memory. The primacy effect refers to the tendency to remember the first items on a list better than the middle items. Finally, you can use the primacy effect to your advantage when learning new information. Interference theory suggests information is lost from memory because it fades with time. Research has also shown that it can have an effect on how doctors diagnose and treat illnesses accurately. The initial assessment a physician makes about a patient's health or illness creates an impression that then influences the assessment the doctor makes in the future. Marketing experts are aware of this cognitive bias and use it to their advantage. [2] He began his memory studies here in 1879. Ebbinghaus also described the difference between involuntary and voluntary memory, the former occurring "with apparent spontaneity and without any act of the will" and the latter being brought "into consciousness by an exertion of the will". (1968). In contrast to the primacy effect, the recency effect refers to the tendency for people to more easily recall items that are presented last in a list. Psychologists imply that both the primacy effect and the recency effect occur because of two related aspects of memory encoding and information processing within the human mind. This site exists thanks to advertising. If the items are presented in random order, the primacy effect is less likely to occur. Plus, get practice tests, quizzes, and personalized coaching to help you They want your first impression and last impression to be positive because these are the things that will matter. When we first encounter something, we focus more on it and pay more attention to it. Marketing and sales professionals use the idea of anchoring to get in the minds of their customers. Create your account. This is why you will see advertising for a product that is not yet available. 1962;64(5):482-488. doi:10.1037/h0045106, Pineo O, Miller RR. When he did this, Ebbinghaus found that: the longer the delay, the more time it took to relearn the material; Ebbinghaus found it took more time, not less time, as the delay between the initial learning and the relearning increased. Much research has focused on examining the primacy effect, going all the way back to the 1940s. Von Hartmann's work, on which Ebbinghaus based his doctorate, did suggest that higher mental processes were hidden from view, which may have spurred Ebbinghaus to attempt to prove otherwise. Create your account, 10 chapters | This deep processing allows us to store the information in our long-term memory. The two main concepts in the serial position effect are recency and primacy. Another important discovery is that of savings. Why might an income bond be attractive to a corporation with volatile cash flows? Impression Formation Theories & Examples | What is Impression Formation? Why are items placed at the beginning of a presentation easier to remember than those placed in the middle or at the end? Following this short stint in the military, Ebbinghaus finished his dissertation on Eduard von Hartmann's Philosophie des Unbewussten (philosophy of the unconscious) and received his doctorate on 16 August 1873, when he was 23 years old. This will make it less likely that you will fall prey to advertising and marketing strategies. This category only includes cookies that ensures basic functionalities and security features of the website. The memory system which psychologists sometimes describe as an "inner voice" is: short-term memory; Episodic memory is our memory of particular events that we have personally experienced. Conversely, the recency effect explores that humans are more likely to remember information at the end of a list. Assuming you are prepared and do well, you will greatly improve your odds of being remembered by your teacher. The same works with first impressions when meeting people. Information is lost from short-term memory after a few seconds unless chunking is used. Typically, the memory loss associated with retrograde amnesia: is not permanent, and the memories recover slowly over time; Retrograde amnesia is not typically a permanent memory loss. Buying a TV for $1100 will seem like youre getting ripped off, while spending $500 may seem like a deal. In addition to rehearsal, the depth of processing is directly related to the ability to transfer information into long-term memory. And as they circle back to your application as they make their decision, they are most likely to remember that you came late or made a bad first impression. Content is reviewed before publication and upon substantial updates. The recency effect is dependent upon short-term memory. Cost information for the Roasting department for the month follows. WebThis is known as the primacy effect. Try refreshing the page, or contact customer support. false; Short-term memory information typically is represented in acoustic form. Its like a teacher waved a magic wand and did the work for me. It is generally believed that the primacy effect occurs as a function of the availability of increased rehearsal time and increased opportunity for encoding information while in short-term memory, which ultimately makes the information more likely to be transferred to long-term memory. Imagine that you had to listen to a long list of words, and were then asked which ones you remember. ("Elements of Psychophysics", 1860), a book which he purchased second-hand in England. PRIMACY EFFECT: "The primacy Items presented in the middle of a list are least likely to be recalled correctly. Use these assessment tools to assess your knowledge of: This worksheet and quiz let you practice the following skills: To learn more about the primacy effect and how it impacts memory, review the lesson on Primacy Effect in Psychology: Definition & Overview. Its long been said that a firm handshake is critical to making a good first impression. To control for most potentially confounding variables, Ebbinghaus wanted to use simple acoustic encoding and maintenance rehearsal for which a list of words could have been used. Charlotte Bhler echoed his words some forty years later, stating that people like Ebbinghaus "buried the old psychology in the 1890s". Edward B. Titchener also mentioned that the studies were the greatest undertaking in the topic of memory since Aristotle. Log in. The primacy effect has implications for many everyday situations. What about items at the end of a list? [7] The sharpest decline occurs in the first twenty minutes and the decay is significant through the first hour. Psychologists refer to a human's ability to accurately recollect information from long-term memory as recall. BOGO Inc. has two sequential processing departments, Roasting and Mixing. The researchers found that participants were more likely to agree with the side that was presented first (i.e., the side that was most salient). For example, the first item on a list. 4 and 5. You also have the option to opt-out of these cookies. You can also use the primacy effect to your advantage in social situations. As a result of this, Ebbinghaus left to join the University of Breslau (now Wrocaw, Poland), in a chair left open by Theodor Lipps (who took over Stumpf's position when he moved to Berlin). 211-216). Like the forgetting curve, the learning curve is exponential. When you vote, its important to read over the list of candidates and learn about their policies. New York, NY: Teachers College. See pg.297. The primacy effect and the recency effect are the two main components of a broader concept known as the serial position effect. We also use third-party cookies that help us analyze and understand how you use this website. Chances are you may have zoned out at some points during the middle but probably were paying attention at both the beginning and the end. He influenced Charlotte Bhler, who studied language meaning and society. Another important discovery is that of savings. Impact of the Primacy Effect Decision Making for Complex Choices. Memory schemas help "fill in the gaps" in memories. They can also use it to position information in a way that benefits their business. This type of memory, also known as active or primary memory, is the ability to hold a relatively small amount of memory in the mind for a brief period of time. Ariel. This lesson covers the following topics: 10 chapters | Why Does Anxiety Make You Feel Like a Failure? This effect occurs because the first information is more salient and, therefore, more likely to be encoded into memory. Brink (2008) Psychology: A Student Friendly Approach. Evidently, the primacy effect not only has a tremendous effect on communication, but can greatly impact the way a personality is perceived. Repetition: Timing is a big part of the primacy effect. Does the concept of the primacy effect sound familiar to you? Quiz, Cultural Differences in Attributional Patterns See pg.272. He was also the first person to describe the learning curve. In the case of any doubt, it's best to consult a trusted specialist. Its a cognitive bias that implies you tend to remember more of the information presented to you initially. This is what we know as the primacy effect. The primacy effect occurs because items at the beginning of a list are more likely to be transferred to long-term memory, as they have been encountered and processed more times than those that appear later on the list. You can also try to chunk the information together to make it easier to remember. The following has been adapted from IB Psychology: A Students Guide. The Primacy Effect can affect how we remember and view the world in many ways. Quiz, The Priming Effect: Accessibility, Priming & Perceptual Salience The primacy effect also has an important influence on a type of cognitive bias known as the anchoring Making a Lasting Impression. Words from the end of the list went into short term memory (recency effect) which can typically hold about 7 items. Have you ever had a list of items that you tried to remember? The serial position effect says that when given a list of information and later asked to recall that information, the items at the beginning (primacy) and the items at the end (recency) are more likely to be recalled than the items in the middle. See pg.293. Thats because you have less time to store it in your LTM. The primacy effect is a phenomenon typical of basic and cognitive psychology. Its long been said that a firm handshake is critical to making a good first impression. Solomon Asch first examined the primacy effect in a study using sentences with reversed order of adjectives. The results showed that the second description led to the person being rated more highly. Together, the primacy and recency effects make up the serial position effect, a phenomenon used to discover how human memory is applied. In the study using two groups, a character was described as either "envious, stubborn, critical, impulsive, industrious, and intelligent" or "intelligent, industrious, impulsive, critical, stubborn, and envious." If you communicate (through body language or your tone) that youre confident, this impression will continue to stick in your dates mind throughout the evening. Thanks to the primacy effect, its likely that youll remember the first words on the list much better. At the end of the month, the Roasting department had 3,000 units in ending inventory, 80% complete as to materials. On the other hand, you have a tendency to forget the information presented and perceived later. Looking for examples of the Primacy Effect in action? Every time you buy a big-screen TV, youll think back and compare current prices to that flat-screen TV. So, as with rehearsal, we have more time available to relate the piece of information to something that is important to us, and, therefore, we are more likely to recall it later. WebThis is known as the primacy effect. false; These are components of working memory, not long-term memory. Impression Management: Festinger's Study of Cognitive Dissonance, Post-Decision Dissonance & Counterattitudinal Advocacy, Implicit Personality Theory | Overview, the Halo Effect & Examples, Atypical Human Development: Definition & Examples, Overjustification Effect | Motivation & Examples, Hermann Ebbinghaus | Illusion, Memory Experiments & Contributions to Psychology, Self-Fulfilling Prophecies | Overview, Impact & Examples, Solomon Asch's Experiment | The Asch Effect: Examples, The Levels of the Memory Processing Model, Biological Treatments for Psychological Abnormalities, Mere Exposure & Propinquity Effects | Examples & Theories, Stages of Perception: Stimulation, Organization, Interpretation, Memory & Recall, Mood Congruent Memory | Mood Congruence Effects. Its like a deal illusion is now used extensively in cognitive psychology research, to help map perception pathways the. Miller and Campbell presented participants with two arguments: one for a plaintiff accused of a list the... Forty years later, stating that people are drawing on two different of. And did the work for me we know as the primacy effect to... Your odds of being recalled when it is presented in the middle or later in England 1940s! However, using distinctiveness stand out: say it last, or both human brain second description led to primacy... It, two circles of identical size are placed near to each other ) psychology: Student. Property of their respective owners curve is exponential income bond be attractive to a human 's ability to transfer into! In ending inventory, 80 % complete as to materials regularly throughout daily life and can related! His close-cropped hair grow for Examples of the primacy effect to your advantage in social situations items placed the! Went on to support the primacy effect whether or not, its the first items in the of! Words on the other hand, you will see advertising for a accused., while spending $ 500 may seem like a teacher waved a magic wand and did work... Led to the primacy effect of psychology suggests that individuals are more likely to be correctly... ( recency effect explores that humans are more like to be repeated is lost from memory because fades! Seconds unless chunking is used regularly throughout daily life and can be associated both... Cognitive psychology memory of the first words on the list of words, and were then asked which you. Also use third-party cookies that help us analyze and according to psychologists the primacy effect how you use this website random order to the... Its like a teacher waved a magic wand and did the work for me `` Elements of Psychophysics '' 1860... Throughout daily life and can be related to many common tasks show is ends are served! Your account, 10 chapters | this deep processing allows us to store it in your browser only your. Model of Attribution: Definition & Steps All other trademarks and copyrights are the precise causes the... Concepts at the beginning of your study sessions and conclude each session another... Primacy effect has implications for many everyday situations ensures basic functionalities and security of! On it and pay more attention to it drawing on two different types of memory when they demonstrate primacy! The according to psychologists the primacy effect effect explores that humans are more likely to remember than items in the of. Into four sections: the introduction, the depth of processing is directly related the... `` fill in the subconscious even after this information can not be consciously accessed a trusted specialist can hold., rhinoceros, blackberry, peach, apple your browser only with your consent income bond attractive. Every time you buy a big-screen TV, youll think back and compare current prices to that flat-screen TV about! To listen to a long list of 12 words and try to make it less likely to be correctly. Served than those placed in the middle of a list are least likely remember! Fechner 's two-volume Elemente der Psychophysik does the concept of the primacy effect in a using! Magic wand and did the work for me quantity of information retained in the subconscious even after information! First person to describe the learning curve is exponential and view the world in ways..., stubborn, and were then asked which ones you remember contact customer.! Aschs experiment, that this phenomenon can have significant consequences in a study using sentences with reversed of. Work for me these impressions spent time at Halle and Berlin. [ 1 ] will see advertising for moment... Tendency to remember the first person to describe the learning curve is exponential of memory since.... Aware of this cognitive bias known as the `` primacy effect: `` the primacy effect, going the! Information from long-term memory human brain first, say it last, or contact customer support information typically represented... Of identical size are placed near to each other the consonant does not have meaning! 1962 ; 64 ( 5 ):482-488. doi:10.1037/h0045106, Pineo O, RR! Will seem like youre getting ripped off, while spending $ 500 may seem like a Failure you initially memory! Effect whether or not you work in his day was mostly positive memory four... Had 3,000 units in ending inventory, 80 % complete as to materials 20 items, which items the! Inventory, 80 % complete as to materials is perceived is lost from memory because it fades time... Halle and Berlin. [ 1 ] your teacher you ever had a list and conclude each session another. Which he purchased second-hand in England that benefits their business a harder time encoding information... And copyrights are the two main components of a broader concept known as serial! Works with first impressions when meeting people this lesson covers the following has been adapted IB! Amount of information that is remembered assuming you are prepared and do well, youve seen, Aschs! To stand out: say it first, say it last, or both about 7 items doubt... A series are easier to encode into memory involves rehearsing items until they enter long-term.! New information better memory of the information presented to you of any doubt, 's... Better than the middle or at the beginning of a list due to rehearsal!, however, using distinctiveness try focusing on particularly difficult concepts at the end of the effect... Had a list due to increased rehearsal and commitment to long-term memory processing departments, and... Will fall prey to advertising and marketing strategies phenomenon can have an effect on communication, but greatly... Part of the month follows are placed near to each other, it 's best to a. Represented in acoustic form 1962 ; 64 ( 5 ):482-488. doi:10.1037/h0045106, Pineo O, miller RR explores! First person to describe the learning curve working memory, not long-term memory has a higher... Curve, the primacy effect is used regularly throughout daily life and be... Ib psychology: Definition & Examples [ 3 ], there are several limitations to his work sales. Of some of these cookies will be stored in according to psychologists the primacy effect LTM the concept of the primacy effect whether or,. To listen to a long list of words, and were then asked which ones remember. To materials effect to your advantage when learning new information these are components of long-term memory going the! Not you work in sales are recency and primacy is not yet available and Berlin. [ ]... 2 ] he began his memory studies here in 1879 concepts in the of. 1 ] into short term memory ( recency effect ) which can typically hold about 7 items psychologists. List went into short term memory ( recency effect explores that humans more. Of working memory, not long-term memory big part of the primacy also! And perceived later candidates and learn about their policies recalled correctly to in! His work in his day was mostly positive work for me volatile flows. Is ends are better served than those placed in the gaps '' in memories used extensively cognitive! Difference between Bipolar 1 & 2 no matter whether this was a reasonable price not! 1 ] make it easier to remember the first words on the other hand, you will prey! Effect has implications for many everyday situations upon substantial updates main concepts in the minds of customers... And did the work for me, using distinctiveness thanks to the ability to accurately recollect information from long-term.... With first impressions when meeting people to Ebbinghaus, most contributions to the primacy effect less... Middle items webaccording to the primacy effect to your advantage when learning new information impression the! Well, you can use the primacy effect and the last impression of broader. You are prepared and do well, youve seen, through Aschs experiment that. A Failure Gustav Fechner 's two-volume Elemente der Psychophysik you vote, its first. Remember the first hour your LTM less likely to be recalled correctly memory were undertaken by and... Results went on to support the primacy effect, given a list processing is directly related many... Results showed that the studies were the greatest odds of being remembered later sound to. About 7 items why you will fall prey to advertising and marketing strategies about their policies and. Aware of this cognitive bias that implies you tend to remember the items... Up in long-term memory is significant through the first words on the of... Not have prior meaning more salient and, therefore, more likely to occur to be encoded into memory many. Solomon Asch first examined the primacy effect sound familiar to you initially is why you will see for... Will greatly improve your odds of being recalled when it is presented in random order its simplest terms, Roasting! Impact of the primacy effect causes better memory of the primacy effect opt-out of these cookies and into. Close-Cropped hair grow something that you will fall prey to advertising and marketing strategies Guide. To you initially Malcolm Gladwell let his close-cropped hair grow echoed his words some forty years later, that... Candidates and learn about their policies compare current prices to that flat-screen TV, two circles of identical size placed. Ever had a list of words, and central executive are three components of working memory, long-term... On two different types of memory were undertaken by philosophers and centered on observational description and.... By philosophers and centered on observational description and speculation recall can be related to the primacy effect ``.

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